Book of Kells. Chi Rho, Folio 34r (right) and Mathew 6:5-10, Folio 45r .
Created around 800 A.D. by the monastery on the island of Iona.
The Book of Kells is one of the most renowned hand-drawn illuminated manuscripts worldwide and probably the best example of book design before the advent of the printing press. “Countless hours of work were lavished upon individual pages, whose vibrant color and form are in stunning contrast to the stark, reclusive environment and rule of silence found in the monastic scriptorium” (Meggs 45). Most of the books then were made in monasteries so the content focused on religious material. The Book of Kells is largely based on the Vulgate (Latin New Testament). It also adheres to much of the traditional Celtic design of the time: intricate and complex patterns, bright pure colors used in juxtaposition, and full coverage of pages with design. Celtic manuscripts are widely legendary for the their decorative designs. Full color carpet pages (usually following the gospel pages), detailed embellished capitals, and ornate borders were common elements in the Book of Kells and other similar scripts. Additional elements also included lacertines, interlaces, zoomorphics, Celtic knots, plant forms, and human figures. At the time, illustrators were not concerned with the need to make images look natural or realistic. Traditionally work on manuscripts was in a scriptorium, a special room set aside for work on manuscripts. The work labor process usually began with preparing the animal skins used to make parchment or vellum. Once ready, scribes would first write in all the text and then illustrators would finish the job by illuminating the pages.
One of the problems that arose dealt with the use of large, embellished capitals. In order to solve this, designers used a principle called diminuendo. By doing this designers were able to create the large capitals and still fit the other text because it would decrease is size. Insular script, a half-uncial script, was used as the national letterform in Ireland. These letterforms were characterized by full, round strokes and connected at the waistline or baseline of each letter. One of the greatest features of this script was that it left room for spaces between words making it easier to read. Although beautiful in appearance, “the text [was] careless and contain[ed] misspellings and missreadings” (Meggs 46). In 789 A.D. Charlemagne sought to reform to manuscripts. He set up a “standardization of page payout, writing style, and decoration” (Meggs 47). Although they had some successes of standardization (including the Caroline minuscule and sentence/paragraph structure), most countries reverted to regional characteristics over time.
Ormesby Psalter. Psalm 38 (right) and Psalm 52 (left). Created during the early 1300s A.D. in England.
The Romanesque period quickly progressed into the Gothic period, which lasted from about 1150 A.D. until the Renaissance in the 14th century. The Medieval Ages had left people in a time of darkness. However, the Gothic era saw an increased stability in social and economic matters. As conditions improved for society, universities became more prominent. More educated people at universities meant increased literacy and demand for books. At the same time that this demand for books arrived, there was also a revival of religious zeal. This resulted in the production of liturgical books, including the Ormesby Psalter. This privately commissioned book, like the Book of Kells, is intricate and decorative. However, unlike the Book of Kells, the Ormesby Psalter was written in a new Gothic lettering form, textura. Textura (also known as littera moderna) eliminated the rounded strokes from before and became “quite functional” for producing books (Meggs 54). These letterforms were created by drawing all vertical lines first, and then adding serifs and additional strokes to transform the group of vertical lines into a word. In order allow as much text as possible on a page, space between letters and words was reduced. This created a “dense black textured effect” (Meggs 55).
As stated previously, much of the decorative style during this time was similar to that of the Book of Kells. However, one major difference started emerging, an increased attention to naturalism. Illustrators were making attempts to replicate human and plant forms with some realism. Human figures were no longer distorted, but instead elongated and becoming venerable. The increase in naturalism has often been quoted as leading to the Renaissance. Marginella, ornate frames bordering pages, were used as a way to give visual cues retaining to the text. In the examples above, and many others, human figures were drawn in into these frames. Slowly, “the everyday life of the people had found its way into… religious texts” (Meggs 55). During this time the Crusades and privately commissioned books, made it possible for illustrators to travel abroad. Many elements from various countries began to merge, making it difficult to distinguish nationalistic styles. 
Gutenberg Bible (42 Line Bible). Created in 1455 by Johannes Gutenberg in Germany.
The Gutenberg Bible marked the monumental transition from hand illustrated manuscripts to printed books. It was the first book ever printed on Gutenberg’s press, which has been credited with revolutionizing society worldwide. However, there was some resistance to the printing press. In particular was Pope Julius II, who had scribes hand-letter a typographic book. The advent of the printing press is responsible for the largest spread of human knowledge. Before its creation, books were very expensive and limited. However, Gutenberg made it possible to print multiple copies of a book easily, quickly, and much less expensive than before. This rapid and cheap production of books meant that the book and the knowledge and ideas contained within it were much more accessible to the common person. Eventually, the book becomes an everyday commodity. It was also able to unify languages across countries, making French, English, and German “mass media communication” available (Meggs 79). Furthermore, the ready availability of books to everyone caused a decrease in the illiteracy rate. Study became much more prominent and people began to interpret things on their own, instead of depending on others, such as the church, to dictate what they believed. One of the best examples where this notion took off was the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the Castle Church. Later copies of it were made and handed out. His ideas quickly became widespread and lead to the division of Christianity forevermore.
Key characteristics of the Gutenberg Bible: use of the Gothic textura, double columns, good craftsmanship, distinct lack of color and ornamentation (though some decorated capitals were present). Overall, the printing press created a loss of individuality for books. We were no longer seeing beautifully ornate pages, but rather simplistic, conformed books.
Nuremberg Chronicle (Folio 9v & 10r). Created in 1493 in Nuremberg, Germany. Author: Hartmann Schedel, Illustrators: Michael Wolgemut and Wilhelm Pleydenwurff, Printer: Anton Koberger.
The Nuremberg Chronicle, produced during the incunabula period, is a “masterpiece” work chronicling the history of the world (Meggs 83). Various “sketch artists” and scribes made the exemplars, guides for the woodcut illustrations, typesetting, and page design (Meggs 83). The result was a book full of 1,809 woodcut illustrations. The Nuremberg Chronicles layout varies from page to page. Some have double-page illustrations and others contain only text. Woodcuts and unexpected page design are seen throughout. A combination of the Gothic textura and woodcuts created a visually interesting layout.
Among the illustrators for the Nuremberg Chronicles was Albrecht Durer, probably an apprentice at the time. Durer is known for setting a high standard of illustration. Before the printing press intricate detail was common among the manuscripts; however, this was lost when with the shift to the printing press. Durer changes this and develops beautiful pieces of work using lines to create tonality. In 1498 he published The Apocalypse, a work of “unprecedented emotional power and graphic expressiveness” (Meggs 84). At an early age, Durer had been exposed to the Italian Renaissance and brought much of that knowledge over to Germany. He was inspired his first book, A Course in the Art of Measurement with Compass and Ruler, which focused on theoretical discussions geometry and its relation to art. This was one of the occasions when we begin to see a subtle change in content of books. Before many of the books printed were religiously related. However, the spread of ideas (such as Luther’s Ninety Five Theses) and the Italian Renaissance encouraged many to begin printing unconquered material.
Geometriae Elementa (title page). Created in 1482 in Italy by Erhard Ratdolt, Peter Loeslein, and Bernhard Maier.
The Renaissance was a revolutionary movement that swept through Europe during the 14th-17th centuries. This cultural development flourished in Venice and transformed the typographic book design. Johannes de Spira made typographic progress with the development an “innovative and handsome roman type” (Meggs 94). It eliminated some of the Gothic characteristics of pervious types. However, it is Nicolas Jenson who is credited as the most influential typeface designer. He constructed the complete roman type, which is what today’s modern fonts are based on. The legibility and used of space between letters and words made Jenson’s fonts popular.
Up to this point books still consisted of a partnership between the printers and illustrators. Soon Erhard Ratdolt came upon this dilemma and took the first steps to develop a fully printed book. Ratdolt’s work, Geometriae Elementa, showcases some of the significant progresses he accomplished. His developed the title page (first done in Calendarium) which we are now accustomed to seeing in any book. Additionally, Ratdolt’s use of woodcut borders and initials revived the use of floral ornamentation on pages, like seen above. These new designs were visually pleasing and showed worldwide influence (from Islamic and Western cultures). Although the book had not yet reached it’s full graphic ornamentation, this was the start. Lastly, Geometriae Elementa, fit well with the progress of the Renaissance. At this time there was an increased interest in scientific inquiry. Geometriae Elementa focused on geometry, one of the subjects being studied at the time.
Over time the book has undergone multiple changes, beginning with the illuminated manuscripts done by hand to printed copies. When the first printed books arrived in Italy at the end of the 15th century, they were still not complete. However, influence from the Renaissance and contributions from various designers transformed the book into the basis of what we know today.
